How did Pterosaurs Move on the Ground?

How did Pterosaurs Move on the Ground? The locomotive manner of pterosaurs is a matter of intense dispute in the scientific community. The way that these prehistoric creatures traversed the ground is continually being contested. Did pterosaurs walk how we imagine them to have; on all fours in a semi erect posture, or did they only walk on their hind legs, or on all fours and completely prone? If, in fact, they did walk on all fours, would the feet have been in line with the hands, or would the hands be splayed out much farther than the feet? Because the method of pterosaur locomotion is widely disputed, scientists rely on footprint identification in order to determine if the tracks that they are studying do actually belong to a pterosaur. Unfortunately, even this is a contested issue, as some scientists cant even agree on which tracks belong to which prehistoric creatures. These are all issues that are disputed by scientists, but there does seem to be some common consensus when multiple seemingly conflicting scientific fi ndings are synthesized. The general perception of pterosaurs today is one that is possibly incredibly flawed because of theories about them from the early nineteenth century. Soemmerring confused a juvenile Pterodactylus with what he believed to be the skeleton of a deviant bat in 1817 and Cuviers identified pterosaurs as reptiles in 1812. These ideas have persisted until the modern day so that most people cannot shake the image of a pterosaur as a large, scaly, bat-like creature that walks around on all fours in a semi-erect fashion (Padian, 1983). While this is a possible form of locomotion, there are numerous arguments to the contrary. One of the first writings on pterosaur locomotion on land was Wm. Lee Stokes Pterodactyl Tracks from the Morrison Formation published in 1957. Stokes found a track of nine footprints that he attributed to a pterosaur that he named Pteraichnus Saltwashensis. Since pterodactyls are naturally found near bodies of whatever, its not out of the question that these tracks would belong to one. Stokes claims that the imprint of the manus shows the unique wrist and hand of a pterodactyl and that the imprint of the pes shows the unique V-shape and sharply pointed heel that corresponds unmistakably to that of a pterodactyl. He says that all of this is proof that at least one pterosaur was quadrupedal. Despite the evidence that Stoke says confirms that the creature that made these tracks was a pterosaur; this is one of the most disputed claims in the theory of the ground-level locomotion of pterosaurs. Many scientists believe that these tracks were not made by a pterosaur, but instead by a crocodilian creature. This is a distinct possibility because the tracks of pterosaurs and crocodilians are commonly confused for one another. In The Fossil Trackway Pteraichnus: Not Pterosaurian, but Crocodilian, Kevin Padian and Paul Olsen claim that the tracks that Stokes attributes to Pteraichnus Saltwashensis are more likely the product of one of the four species of crocodilian known to have inhabited that area. They say that the pes is not unique to pterodactyloids, as crocodiles also exhibit four toes and a V-shaped heel. Also, they claim that the manus does not consist of four digits, but five, even though the impression of all five is not clearly preserved. Another distinguishing feature is that crocodiles are plantigrade and therefore the heel print would be visible, as it is in these tracks. This is opposed to the digitigrade nature of pterosaurs, which would cause the heel print to be excluded from the footprint. Padian and Olsen claim that the manner of movement that the footprints represent is completely different than the kind that Stokes claims created them. Stokes suggested that the depth of the depression created by the manus was due to a large wing knuckle. Padian and Olsen argue that this is not the case, and that the depression was actually caused by the force of the step and the incompetence of the substrate that led to the creation of the fossilized track. One of Padian and Olsens points is refuted in Terrestrial Locomotion of the Pterosaurs: A Reconstruction Based on Pteraichnus Trackways, published in 1997 by S. Cristopher Bennett. Padian and Olsen claim that by using Bairds method, they were able to determine that the length of the body that made the tracks was too long to be that of a pterosaur, but long enough to be a short crocodile. Bennetts refutation of this point rests on the idea that Bairds method was intended to be used on tracks created simultaneously and that this was not the condition under which the tracks in contention were created. Whether this refutation is credible or not is of little importance. Padian and Olsens assertion that the Pteraichnus tracks were actually created by a crocodilian, and that they back it up with plausible scientific hypotheses, casts enough doubt on Stokes original claim to make these tracks inadmissible in determining how pterosaurs moved on land. The primary reason for the possible mistak e that these crocodilian tracks were created by a pterosaur, according to Padians 1983 paper, A Functional Analysis of Flying and Walking in Pterosaurs, is that Owen suspend[ed] the principles of comparative anatomy [and drew] spurious comparisons between pterosaur structures and those of lizards and crocodiles [as well as] misrepresenting the work of H. von Meyer, the German authority on pterosaurs. This paper offers an in depth analysis of the way a pterosaur would move on land based entirely on its bone structure. Padians primary subject of analysis is a Pteranodon, which he claims, among other things, was an active flyer, meaning that it flapped its wings. Padian claims that a pterosaur would walk upright on two legs as opposed to any form of quadripedal motion. He compares pterosaurs to both birds and bats throughout the paper. He attempts to show that the attributes that pterosaurs share with either birds or bats, or both of them, would prevent a pterosaur from being capable of quadrupedal locomotion. Padian says that the forelimb of the pterosaur was adapted entirely for flying and not for quadrupedal walking. The humerus bone of the forearm was adapted for the type of movement that facilitated a down-and-forward flapping motion, since Padian claims that pterosaurs were active flyers, and not for the rotation of the humerus that would protract the forearm to facilitate terrestrial walking. Moving down the arm, the elbow joint in birds, bats, and pterosaurs are what allow for rotation. In bats, this allows for quadrapedal walking but, in both birds and pterosaurs, it has hindered articulation to the extent of turning their limbs into pulley-like hinges with a wide arc of movement possible in only one plane (Padian 1983, 227). Padian claims that the differences in the shape of humeral heads in pterosaurs were even more restrictive in the pterosaurs range of motion than it is in birds. The delto-pectoral crest in pterosaurs was pronounced and twisted along the axis of the shaft, whi ch caused the deltoideus muscle to actually reverse the rotation of the humerus that was initiated by the pectoralis muscles as the pterosaur made a downward stroke while in flight. This reversal in rotation prohibited the forelimb from being moved into the proper position to facilitate its placement on the ground and therefore any form of quadrupedal locomotion. Ultimately, Padian asserts, the structure of the forelimbs of pterosaurs prevented them from walking quadrapedally. They were incapable of parasagittal movement over the ground because of restrictions imposed on them from their bone and muscular structures. The structure of the hind legs of pterosaurs that are included in Padians argument for a bipedal pterosaur is equally as important as the structure of the forelimbs. Padian bases his argument on a pterosaur thats wing was not attached to its hind legs and the idea that despite the relatively small size of the legs of a pterosaur when compared to the rest of its body and specifically its forelimbs, it would still have been able to, and in fact been solely capable of, bipedal locomotion on its hind limbs. Padian reconstructs the pelvis and hip joints of a pterosaur to show that certain elements of its anatomy would prevent it from bending forward in a way that would enable quadrupedal locomotion. He says that there are two girdles surrounding the point where the femur is inserted into the hip that restricts the degree of rotation of the leg so that it would be impossible to move in any way other than bipedally. Padian uses a Pteranodon as his case study for a pterosaur with an extremely large upper body and a relatively small lower body that is still able to walk on the ground. He says that the reason the forelimbs are so large is because the mass of the Pteranodon necessitated expansive wings to provide the appropriate amount of lift while airborne. The size of the wings, though, is not correlated to the size of the legs. The surface area of the wings needed to increase at a rate of L^3/L^2 when compared to the size of the body. The disproportionate lengthening of the wing afforded a greater relative area that allowed the Pteranodon to achieve flight. On the other hand, the Pteranodons legs are not restricted to the same ratio. The legs can be, and are, significantly smaller than the body that theyre supporting without compromising the Pteranodons terrestrial locomotive abilities. In fact, the size of the Pteranodons hind limbs in relation to the size of the rest of its body is comparable to the relationship between the hind limbs and bodies of all other pterosaurs. Padian compares the bone structure of the hind limbs of pterosaurs to the bone structure of the hind limbs in modern birds. He says that, like in birds, the tibia is the main load-bearing bone in the leg. He claims that the femur had a position that ranged between slightly above horizontal to about forty-five degrees below it and that this orientation allowed for the tibia to move on a parasagittal plane. This essentially means that pterosaurs moved on the ground like most other bipedal dinosaurs. Padians ultimate claim is that pterosaur hind limbs were designed for bipedal, digitigrade, locomotion when they were moving on the ground. He even suggests that it was possible for pterosaurs to achieve high rates of speed on the ground. S. Christopher Bennett is another proponent of the upright, bipedal form of terrestrial locomotion among pterosaurs, but only among the larger pterodactyloids. He exams the acetabulum of Anhanguera, Pteranodon, and Dsungaripterus in A Pterodectyloid Pterosaur Pelvis from the Santana Formation of Brazil: Implications for Terrestrial Locomotion, published in 1990, and determines that its strongest part is the anterior wall. He suggests that the strength of this anterior wall allows for upright bipedal locomotion because the acetabulum becomes a downward facing component of the anatomy. This downward orientation allows for a large area of contact for the head of the femur and, therefore, the weight of the body of the pterosaur can be supported in an upright position. Bennett refutes three arguments that are often leveled against bipedal locomotion in pterosaurs. He says that the femora bone could, in fact, have been brought underneath the body of the pterosaur, which is demonstrated by AMNH 22569. Secondly, that the hind limbs of the pterosaurs had straight femurs with distinct, inturned heads, mesotarsal ankles without a calcaneal tuber, and a foot with elongated metatarsals. Finally, he argues that the preservation of pterosaurs, in a position with their hind limbs splayed to the sides, a position that has caused many scientists to claim that theyre incapable of bipedal locomotion, is a false supposition. He notes five specimens that were preserved with their hind limbs on one side of the body, and argues that the splayed nature of the other specimens is due to greater hip flexibility in pterosaurs. Bennetts inclusion of the fossilized remains of pterosaurs in his argument for bipedal locomotion among the larger pterodactyloids is particularly convincing. He makes up for one of the key elements that Padians argument was missing, in that he actually gives concrete physical evidence to support his argument instead of supposed anatomical construction and the type of movement that that structure would or would not allow. One thing that Padians analysis of the terrestrial movement of pterosaurs lack is the actual fossilized track that a pterosaur made. While the supposed structure of the bones may lead one to believe that Padians claims are accurate, there are numerous pterosaur tracks that indicate a quadrupedal form of locomotion among pterosaurs. The majority of the studies included in this paper have focused on larger pterosaurs, and mostly on the Pteranodon. This particular pterosaur shares a large amount of its anatomy with modern birds and it makes sense that, from an analysis paying the majority of its attention to this pterosaur, they would all seem to be bipedal. There is evidence in other fossils, though, that would say otherwise. Pterosaurs, depending on the kind they were, were either bipedal or quadrupedal. Bennetts refutation of Padian and Olsens crocodilian diagnosis of the Pteraichnus tracks contains very valid points concerning the way that pterosaurs could have possibly walked in a quadrupedal manner. He says specifically that rhamphorhyncoids, the earlier variation of pterosaurs, as well as small pterodactyloids were quadrupeds with plantigrade pedes (Bennett, 1997). He says that the model he constructed of Pterydactylus and that, along with other detailed studies and manipulations of other three-dimensionally preserved pterosaur specimens, the limb and girdle joints would have easily allowed for the range of motion necessary for a pterosaur to achieve a quadrupedal walking motion. Bennett cites the Pteraichnus saltwashensis tracks as being representative of a quadrupedal pterosaur, which was disavowed earlier in this paper. He validly examines the tracks of Pteraichnus stokesi that were discovered in the Sundance Formation of Wyoming as well as pterosaur tracks from the Upper Jurassic of France. These trackways show manus and pes prints that are clearly pterosaurian. This indicates that there were certain species of pterosaur located in these areas that were quadrupedal. All of Bennetts are based on the principle of identifying the tracks as pterosaurian based on the structure of the manus and pes. Another piece of research that proves that quadrupedal locomotion was present in pterosaurs is First Record of a Pterosaur Landing Trackway, published in 2009 by Jean-Michel Mazin, Jean-Paul Billon-Bruyat, and Kevin Padian. The tracks that they are examining are clearly the landing pattern of a pterosaur because they originate with two pes prints and then continue on in a walking pattern. They claim that the stance of the pterosaur was erect because the pedes tracks are placed almost directly below the hip joints. After the first impression of the pedes, the second impression includes both pedes and manus impressions. The impressions of the manus are splayed out wider than pes, which is the generally accepted idea of how a pterosaur would ambulate. The tracks, not only created by a flying creature, are located in the Late Jurassic site known as Pterosaur Beach, which is a place universally agreed upon to contain unquestionable pterosaur tracks. Therefore, the landing pattern and subs equent tracks, that clearly show quadrupedal locomotion, prove that at least some pterosaurs moved in this way on the ground. The debate surrounding the terrestrial locomotion of pterosaurs can be broken down into many categories and subdivisions. Its clearly that one form of locomotion, whether it be bipedal, quadrupedal, plantigrade, digitigrade, erect, semi-erect, or any other distinction, cannot be used to define every single pterosaur that ever existed. This is similar to the idea that one form of locomotion cannot be used to describe every dinosaur that ever existed. There is variation between species of pterosaurs. The larger pterosaurs seem to be generally more bird-like and more inclined to quadrupedal locomotion. The Pteranodon, specifically, almost definitely was a biped. Its wing structure was the most similar to that of a bird (Padian, 1983), and its two hind limbs were more than sufficient for bothing locomotion and launching off from the ground in order to initiate flight. Smaller pterosaurs, on the other hand seem to be more similar in locomotive method to the general perception of how pterosaurs moved, in a kind of quadrupedal crawl. The tracks found at Pterosaur Beach, and if actually created by a pterosaur, those of Pteraichnus saltwashensis, prove that at least some smaller pterosaurs were quadrupedal. In conclusion, any attempt to define the entire order of Pterosauria as quadrupedal or bipedal is an exercise in futility. The larger pterosaurs, such as Pteranodon, were bipedal, which is apparent based on their wing and leg structures. They would have been unable to move their forelimbs into a position that would allow them to place them on the ground and the mobility of their hind limbs allowed only for bipedal locomotion. Smaller pterosaurs, such as Pteraichnus stokes, were definitely quadrupedal in terms of locomotion since there have been numerous tracks found confirming this idea. Works Cited Bennett, S. (1990). A Pterodactyloid Pterosaur Pelvis from the Santana Formation of Brazil: Implications for Terrestrial Locomotion. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 10(1), 80-85. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523298 Bennett, S. (1997). Terrestrial Locomotion of Pterosaurs: A Reconstruction Base on Pteraichnus Trackways. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 17(1), 104-113. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523790 Mazin, J., Billon-Bruyat, J., Padian, K. (2009). First Record of a Pterosaur Landing Trackway. Proceedings: Biological Sciences, 276(1674), 3881-3886. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30245351 Padian, K. (1983). A Functional Analysis of Flying and Walking in Pterosaurs. Paleobiology, 9(3), 218-239. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2400656 Padian, K., Olsen, P. (1984). The Fossil Trackway Pteraichnus: Not Pterosaurian, but Crocodilian. Journal of Paleontology, 58(1), 178-184. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304743 Sà ¡nchez-Hernà ¡ndez, B., Przewieslik, A., Benton, M. (2009). A Reassessment of the Pteraichnus Ichnospecies from the Early Cretaceous of Soria Province, Spain. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 29(2), 487-497. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20627057 Wm. Lee Stokes. (1957). Pterodactyl Tracks from the Morrison Formation. Journal of Paleontology, 31(5), 952-954. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1300563 Drug Abuse in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | Research Proposal Drug Abuse in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | Research Proposal BACKGROUND STUDY Drug abuse is a cause of concern to all nations around the world either in developing countries and undeveloped countries and in both cases the most affected are the youth,. Due to the rapid increase in drug related crime and drug abusers in Asian countries, the establishment of effective countermeasures for demand and supply reduction are a pressing issue. And if they are all left out to be addicted to dangerous narcotics, it can lead to all social ills like road accidents, high crime rates, unplanned pregnancies, school dropouts and many more which may result in fracturing the moral fibre of the country and eventually the nation will be without prominent future leaders. The abuse of drugs has an adverse impact, not only on the individual abuser, but also on the economy and society of a country as a whole. According to Scorzelli JF, (2009) despite the heavy punishment of death imposed by the Malaysian government for whoever is caught in drug possession, within the last five years, the Malaysian drug abuse problem has escalated. This has led to the increase in social ills like HIV/AIDS which is contracted by the use of IV-Heroin. He continued to state that 93.7% of people caught in drug possession are male aged between 20-29 years of age. This clearly shows that our youth are in dire need of thorough drug and peer education. The National Anti-Drug Agency has been on track to get rid of the drug problem in Malaysia by 2015. When interviewed by the New Straits Times (2010, February) the director-general Datuk Abdul Bakir Zin has pointed out that they have helped out around the country to bring addicts to their rehabilitation centre. He has said that the centre spends around RM 300 million which is their annual budget which is nearly spent on prevention, treatment, rehabilitation of addicts and enforcement operations. Addicts are kept for two years and they are released but some of them go back to their bad habits. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Drug abuse has led to an alarming increase of social ills in the society like HIV/AIDS contraction , road accidents and many more which have resulted in the collapse of the moral fibre of the nation. The medical and psychological effects are very obvious. Addicts cannot function as normal members of society. They neglect or abuse their families, and eventually require expensive treatment or hospitalization. Huge police resources are needed to fight smuggling and dealing. Criminal gangs and mafia underworlds develop with the money from drugs. However the main target should be the user. Families and counsellors need to talk to children and people at risk. The fact that the youth is the most affected especially in Malaysia poses a great concern because the youth are the future leaders of tomorrow. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The specific study of the study is to find ways and methods to educate the people of Malaysia especially the youth about the dangers posed by the abuse of drugs. This initiative itself can lead to positive results such as reduced number of drug abusers therefore leading to a low numbers of social ills such as HIV contractions and crime. There should be a diversion programme for drug abusers which can be institutional or community based. RESEARCH QUESTIONS To justify this study, the researcher will investigate the following matters: How many cases of illicit drugs were registered from 2006 to 2011 in Malaysia How individuals are affected psychologically, physically and economically by the abuse of drugs Does the government play a role in reducing the problem of drug abuse? SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY Generally the study of drug abuse phenomenon that is widely occurring in Malaysia will be an endeavour in promoting a much healthy lifestyle that is a drug -free society. Drug-free society means a lot to a country of about 28,310,000 people. It means less crime such as road accidents, thefts and murders, less HIV AIDS positive, less people in the narcotics rehabilitations centre and more manpower in order to bring Malaysia towards becoming a fully developed country. By understanding the main source of the problems, we can all move together to cure as well as to prevent further advance of this spreading illness in our community. The Malaysian psychiatric association (July 6 2006) has cited that when pregnant women abuse drugs there may be foetal abnormalities especially when the pregnancy is early. These deformities may cause the mother to dump the baby, a crime which is currently on the rise in Malaysia. If the drug was used late in the pregnancy may become dependent on opiates, and may later show withdrawal symptoms after delivery. The United Nations Aids (2010) on their report have pointed out that an estimated 170,000 injecting drug users (IDUs). In those users most of them share the needles therefore there is increased spread of the diseases such as HIV/AIDS because likely they do not sterilise such needles. Moreover, this study will reveal most of things behind these drug abuse cases, therefore will significantly boost the awareness of the community about the cases of drug abuse in this country simultaneously contribute in reducing such cases in community. SCOPE OF THE REPORT We undertook the task of reviewing all studies describing the impact of drug abuse at Kuala Lumpur. The population of interest includes injection drug users, and non-injection drug users of heroin, cocaine and marijuana, because these groups of individuals have been identified as having a biological risk of exposure to addictive drug use, including deadly exposure (via injection drug use) to blood-borne via sharing of straws or pipes used to administer drugs (non-injection drug use). Data from questionnaires are analyzed separately, as they different substantially form interview data, and because their drug-related risk factors are quite different and not elaborated further. Another goal is to examine the influence of study methodology on study findings, particularly because the descriptive data may be strongly influenced by sampling methods, and because study design may affect associations between various characteristics and drug use. Since the brand data collection was carried out using information collected from various associations, access to each data was time consuming. We also do not have any compiled data of approved unregistered drug users making the task very complicated. Such database may be hard to acquire as most drug users choose to stay in the dark as they know there is a capital punishment for such a crime. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Drugs A medicine or other substance which has a physiological effect when ingested or otherwise introduced into the body Abuse To use something to bad effect or for a bad purpose Addict A person who is addicted to a particular substance Rehabilitation Restore to former privileges CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction In the literature review we compare and contrast studies done by other people and we note how different they are from ours. We have read journals, books and articles in Science Direct. In this chapter we are able to expand our knowledge on how other writers view the issue at hand. We have displayed various ways of the data we found, either by citing using the APA format, images and tables. 2.1 Literature Review By the year 1983, the problem of drugs was declared a national emergency by the Malaysian government. Everyone convicted of trafficking and those caught with the drugs depending on the amount of drugs they had in their possession were sentenced to death, those were some of the ways the government was trying to solve the problem but if someone was convicted of only for possession of drugs he/she was put in a rehabilitation centre for 2 years. Once realised from the centre, the individual has one year of probation were he or she has two urine tests a month. Drug, taken from Cambridge Dictionaries Online, falls into two categories which are medicine and illegal substance. In the medicine category, the word drug means any natural or artificially made chemical which is used as a medicine while in the category of illegal substance, drug means any natural or artificially made chemical which is taken for pleasure, to improve someones performance of an activity, or because a person cannot stop using it. The latter meanings actually portraying the main interest in this study which is the action of drug abuse, which by the same source, abuse means to use or treat someone or something wrongly or badly, especially in a way that is to your own advantage. This unhealthy phenomenon is actually a worldwide crisis and can bring along a great impact in ones life, consequently a community, and then will affect the growth of a country. Some said that this crisis is the same age as humankind. It is in our nature that we like to consume things that bring us pleasure and being in the state of euphoria. However, we must first consider the side effects of the consumption of such substances. There was enormous number of researches that had been carried out in order to suppress or banish this crisis all over the world. There are ups and downs for the trends of the drug abuse cases but it had never been ceased completely. Kuala Lumpur as a busy place, most of the inhabitants need drugs to cope with the fast life. These drugs can be addictive substances such as heroine, alcohol, and ecstasy pills. The research by the Malaysian Psychiatric Association (2006), showed that the brain is affected by the consumed drugs. The left part of the brain is affected is called the reward pathway. Continued use of drugs short-circuits the reward pathway and that how addiction starts. The brain will then need more and more large quantities of the substance taken over time. The brain chemistry is altered at this point, therefore behavioural patterns starts here. Drugs like cocaine can lead to permanent damage, death and even addition. From the article adapted from RECOVERY NOW website on cocaine effects, it is stated that there are two different categories of cocaine effect. These effects are said to be long termed and short termed .Regardless of how many times a person uses cocaine even once! heshe experiences short-term cocaine effects which includes increased blood pressure, mental alertness, increased heart rate, decreased appetite and increased body temperature .The long term effects appear after increased periods of use. Long term effects include irritability, mood disturbances and restlessness. Marijuana is also one of the most commonly abused drug and according to the American Council For Drug Education they describe it as a mild hallucinogen with some alcohols depressant which results in bronchitis, emphysema and bronchial asthma. They also continue to stress that marijuana leads to reduction of learning ability which is one of the reasons why most students who smoke marijuana end up performing badly at school as it limits the capability to absorb information as it is highly addictive. In an addiction state a person engages in a compulsive behaviour, even when faced with challenging life situations. Taking a look at the fast life in Kuala Lumpur a lot of challenges are faced by the youth there, these include unemployment, loss of a loved one or poverty. These situations can cause you to excessively use drugs to suppress such hurt felt within. The National Anti-Drug Agency (New Straits 12 February 2010) has used over RM 300 million annually to prevent, treat, and rehabilitate addicts. They are trying to achieve the goal for a drug-free Malaysia in 2015 and drug-free Malaysian schools in 2012. The director of the agency Datuk Abdul Bakir Zin has mentioned that there is an alarming rate of drug abusers on the increase. The agency successfully rehabilitated 11 395 addicts in 2009 but only 51% of the addicts are clean now. That shows that the drug addicts do not have enough out of rehab education. B.Vicknasigngam, M.Mazlan, K.S Schotchfield , M.C Chawaski(2009),stated that heroin and injection drug are the major public health risk cases recorded in Malaysia. Furthermore they continue to state from their findings, between the year 1998 and 2006 individuals close to 300 000 individuals were registered as persistent drug abusers in Malaysia. In between the years 1998-2006 heroin was the main primary drug abused around 62.6% of those were registered. And this caused a main concern for the Malaysian government as it lead to increase in social ills like road accidents and also the rise in HIV contraction as the drug abusers shared the same needle hence the spread of the virus was induced. Despite the Malaysian strict law on use of illegal drugs people still continue to use the illegal drugs and have even gone to an extent of making it into a business to finance their lifestyle. The law clearly states that any person found in possession of at least 15 grams of heroin, 200 grams of cannabis is presumed. The National Drug Agency, Malaysia in 2006 around 22,811 drugs users was recorded and 12,430 of whom were repeat offenders. They also stress that the total number of drug users recorded for the period of 1998-2006 is 300,241 people which constitutes to 1.1% of the Malaysians population. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction The introduction highlights the data collection methods which were used to gather information which enabled us to reach our conclusion. One of the vital aspects we looked into was the validity and reliability of the data collection methods that we decided to use. In our research we found that the ideal data collection methods that we can use are the questionnaire and interview for analysis Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-to-face interviews. This is especially true for studies involving large sample sizes and large geographic areas. Written questionnaires become even more cost effective as the number of research questions increases. Questionnaires are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all surveys can be easily done with many computer software packages. Nearly everyone has had some experience completing questionnaires and they generally do not make people apprehensive and they reduce bias. The researchers own opinions will not influence the respondent to answer questions in a certain manner. There are no verbal or visual clues to influence the respondent. When a respondent receives a questionnaire in the mail, he is free to complete the questionnaire on his own time-table. Unlike other research methods, the respondent is not interrupted by the research instrument. Some of the reasons why questionnaires are widely used as data collection method in reports and projects in the fact that the responses are gathered in a standardised way so questions are more objective, certainly more so than interviews, generally it is relatively quick to collect information using questionnaires and information can be collected from a large portion of a group. For our research a questionnaire, written both in English and Malay consisting of A3 size pages was sent to different agencies/organizations which were requested to answer it. The main contents of the questionnaire included; Prevention of drug abuse Outline organizations handling drug abuse problem Institutional treatment programmes for drug abusers Outline drug control laws Interviews are also one of the most convenient ways of data collection for reports projects and investigations as they provide first hand information from the correspondent. The interview is also flexible in the since that follow up questions can be asked, also clarity of the question can be made if the respondent does not understand. Even though it has overwhelming advantages one of its major problems maybe that the correspondent may feel like shy to give out information and in that case the interviewer can solve the problem by assuring the correspondent that whatever he/she is being interviewed for will be considered confidential at all costs. For our research, interviews were conducted with the relevant agencies/organizations. Firstly we set an appointment with them and informing them of our objectives.